Global Scenario on Phytoplasmal Diseases in Palms
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55446/IJE.2022.451Keywords:
Arecaceae, mollicutes, vectors, management, diagnosisAbstract
Worldwide phytoplasma diseases pose great threat to the sustainability of the palm family members viz., coconut, arecanut, date palm, oil palm and ornamental palms causing setbacks in economic and livelihood security. So far, at least eight Candidatus Phytoplasma species belonging to different 16Sr groups have been reported to be associated with coconut. This includes Ca. P. asteris (lethal wilt disease in India; 16Sr IB), Ca. P. oryzae (Coconut root (wilt) disease in India, Weligama leaf wilt disease in Sri Lanka; 16Sr XIB), Ca. P. cynodontis (Coconut yellow decline in Malaysia; 16Sr XIV), Ca. P. malaysianum (Malayan yellow dwarf phytoplasma in Malaysia; 16Sr XXXIIB), Ca. P. palmicola (Cape St. Paul wilt in Ghana, Awka wilt in Nigeria; 16Sr XXIIB), Ca. P. cocostanzaniae (lethal yellowing in East Africa; 16Sr IVC), Ca. P. noviguineense (Coconut bogia syndrome in Papua new Guinea) and Ca. P. palmae (Coconut lethal yellowing in Americas and Caribbean region; 16Sr IVA,B,E). Though there are several reports on insects transmitting coconut phytoplasmal diseases, except for LY in Florida and RWD in India, the vectors remain elusive. Susceptibility of date palms to phytoplasmal diseases viz., lethal yellowing, Al-wijam, White Tip Dieback (WTD) and Slow Decline (SD) or El Arkish’ are emerging concerns in Arabian countries and North Africa. Oil palm is a potential host of diverse groups (16SrI, 16SrXI, 16Sr XIV and 16SrXXXII) of phytoplasma in many parts of the world. Yellow leaf disease caused by 16SrI, 16SrXI and16SrXIV group phytoplasmas is one of the major diseases limiting the productivity of arecanut in south India. Many ornamental palm species harbour a wide array of phytoplasma groups that could serve as an intermediary mode of transmission to cultivated palms. Large scale movement of ornamental palms through international trade warrants the need for strengthening the international quarantine networks and bio-security measures to contain the spread of these phytopathogenic mollicutes. Despite rapid progress accomplished in taxonomy using molecular approaches many palm phytoplasma isolates are yet to be characterized for the assignment of specific taxonomic status. Due to its confinement to phloem, non-uniform distribution and sub-minimal titres in palms, molecular detection is many atimes intriguing. Palm-phytoplasmal interaction and transmission mechanism by auchenorrhynchan fauna are poorly understood. As a victim of climate change, phytoplasma diseases in synergy with survival superiority of insect vectors are extremely challenging to comprehend and evolve effective suppression mechanism. Management approaches involving surveillance, eradication and containment of the disease in newly emerging areas along with resistance breeding to ensure sustainable income to the farmers are discussed in this chapter.
Downloads
Metrics
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
References
Al-Awadhi H A, Hanif A, Suleman P, Montasser M S. 2002. Molecular and microscopical detection of phytoplasma associated with yellowing disease of date palms Phoenix dactylifera L. in Kuwait. Kuwait Journal of Science and Engineering 29(2): 87-109.
Alhudaib K, Arocha Y, Wilson M, Jones P, 2007a. Identification and molecular characterization of a phytoplasma associated with AlWijam disease of date palm in Saudi Arabia. Arab Journal of Plant Protection 25(1): 116-122.
Alhudaib K, Arocha Y, Wilson M, Jones P, Bertaccini A, Maini S. 2007b.
Al-Wijam, a new phytoplasma disease of date palm in Saudi Arabia. Bulletin of Insectology 60(2): 285-286.
Al-Khazindar M. 2014. Detection and molecular identification of aster yellows phytoplasma in date palm in Egypt. Journal of Phytopathology 162(9): 621-625.
Alvarez E, Mejia J F, Contaldo N, Paltrinieri S, Duduk B, Bertaccini A. 2014. ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’ strains associated with oil palm lethal wilt in Colombia. Plant Disease 98:311-318.
Amma P G K, Cecil R S, Pillai N G, Mathew A S, Nambiar P T N. 1983. Performance of Dwarf x Tall hybrid coconut in root (wilt) affected areas of Kerala under different fertilizer levels. PLACROSYM5:405-410.
Ammar M I, Amer M A, Rashed M F. 2005. Detection of phytoplasma associated with yellow streak disease of date palms(Phoenix dactylifera L.)in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Virology 2: 74-86.
Anonymous 1985. Coconut root (wilt) disease. Intensity, production loss and future strategy. CPCRI, Kasaragod. 45p.
Arocha-Rosete Y, Konan Konan J L, Diallo A H, Allou K, Scott J A. 2014. Identification and molecular characterization of the phytoplasma associated with a lethal yellowing-type disease of coconut in Cote d’Ivoire. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 36: 141-150.
Ashburner G, Cardova I, Oropeza C, Illingworth R, Harrison N. 1996. First report of coconut lethal yellowing disease in Honduras. Plant Disease 80: 960.
Ashburner GR, Been BO.1997. Characterization of resistance to lethal yellowing in Cocos nucifera and implications for genetic improvement of this species in the Caribbean region. In: Eden-Green SJ, Ofori, F, (eds.) Proceedings of an International Workshop on Lethal Yellowing-Like Diseases of Coconut, Elmina Ghana, November 1995. United Kingdom: Natural Resources Institute, 173-183.
Babu M, Thangeswari S, Josephrajkumar A, Krishna Kumar V, Karthikeyan A, Selvamani V, Mol D, Hegde V, Maheswarappa H P, Karun A. 2021. First report on the association of ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’ with lethal wilt of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in India. Journal of General Plant Pathology 87:16-23.
Bahder B W, Helmick E E, Mou D-F, Harrison N A, Davis R.2019a. Digital PCR technology for detection of palminfecting phytoplasmas belonging togroup 16SrIV that occur in Florida. Plant Disease 103(8): 1918-1922.
Bahder B W, Helmick E E. 2018. Lethal Yellowing (LY) of palm. UF/IFAS Extension Document. pp. 222.
Bahder B W, Soto N, Helmick E E, Dey K K, Komondy L H, Alessandra R, Mou D-F, Bailey R, Ascunce M S, Goss E M. 2019b. A Survey of declining palms (Arecaceae) with 16SrIV-D phytoplasma to evaluate the distribution and host range in Florida. Plant Disease 103(10): 2512-2519.
Baker W J, Dransfield J. 2016. Beyond Genera Palmarum: progress and prospects in palm systematics. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 182(2): 207-233.
Baudouin L, Lebrun P, Berger A, Myrie W, Been B, Dollet M. 2008. The Panama Tall and the Maypan hybrid coconut in Jamaica: Did genetic contamination cause a loss of resistance to lethal yellowing? Euphytica 161:353-360.
Bavappa K V A, Jayasanker N P, Radha K, Rethinam P. 1986. Coconut root (wilt) disease, present status of research and management. Technical Bulletin No. 14, CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala. pp. 10.
Beakbane A, Clater C, Posnette A. 1972. Mycoplasmas in the phloem of coconut, Cocos nucifera L., with lethal yellowing disease. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology 47: 265.
Been B O. 1995.Integrated pest management for the control of lethal yellowing quarantine, cultural practices and optimal use of hybrids. In Oropeza, C, Howard, F.W., Ashburner, G.R. (Eds) Lethal Yellowing Research and Practical aspects, Dordrect. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 101-109.
Bertaccini A, Duduk B, Paltrinieri S, Contaldo N. 2014. Phytoplasmas and phytoplasma diseases: a severe threat to agriculture. American Journal of Plant Science 5: 1763-1788.
Bila J, Hogberg N, Mondjana A, Samils B. 2015. African fan palm (Borassus aethiopum) and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) are alternate hosts of coconut lethal yellowing phytoplasma in Mozambique. African Journal of Biotechnology 14(52): 3359-3367.
Bolanos C, Gallegos P, Ochoa J B, Insuasti M, Bonilla V, Rivadeneira J, Comina P, Cuesta X. 2019. Potato purple top, lethal wilt of oil palm, and papaya twisted neck syndrome: phytoplasma-associated diseases in Ecuador. Biotecnologia Vegetal 19 (1): 15 - 24.
Broschat T K, Harrison N A, Donselman H. 2002. Losses to lethal yellowing cast doubt on coconut cultivar resistance. Palms 46: 185-189.
Brown S E, Been B O, McLaughlin W A. 2007. The lethal yellowing (16Sr IV) group of phytoplasmas. Pest Technology 1(1): 61-69.
Bull R A. 1955. Bronze leaf wilt of coconut palms in Nigeria.Journal of the West African Institute for Oil palm Research.3: 70-72.
Butler E J. 1908. Report on coconut palm disease in Travancore. Agricultural Research Institute Pusa.BulletinNo.9, 23 pp.
Camilo P T, Eleonora S, Samanta P, Oropeza S C, Myrie W. Bertaccini A, Maritza L-P. 2019. Candidatus Phytoplasma’ species detection in coconuts in Cuba. Phytopathogenic Mollicutes 9(1): 191-192.
Cardeña R, Ashburner G R, Oropeza C. 2003. Identification of RAPDs associated with resistance to lethal yellowing of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) palm. Scientia Horticulturae 98: 257-263.
Carter W, Suah J R R. 1964. Studies on the spread of lethal yellowing disease of the coconut palm. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 12: 73-78.
Cordova I, Jones P, Harrison N A, Oropeza C. 2003. In situ PCR detection of phytoplasma DNA in embryos from coconut palms with lethal yellowing disease. Molecular Plant Pathology, 4(2): 99-108.
Cordova I, Oropeza C, Puch-Hau C, Harrison N, Colli-Rodriguez A, Narvaez M, Nic-Matos G, Reyes C, Saenz L, Edizioni E T S. 2014. A real-time PCR assay for detection of coconut lethal yellowing phytoplasmas of group 16SrIV subgroups A, D and E found in the Americas. Journal of Plant Pathology 96: 343-352.
Cronje P, Dabek A J, Jones P, Tymon A M. 2000a. First report of a phytoplasma associated with a disease of date palms in North Africa. Plant Pathology 49(6): 801.
Cronje P, Dabek A J, Jones P, Tymon A M. 2000b. Slow decline: a new disease of mature date palms in North Africa associated with a phytoplasma. Plant Pathology 49 (6): 804.
Dabek A 1, Johnson C G, Harries H C. 1976. Mycoplasma-like organisms associated with Kaincope and Cape St. Paul wilt diseases of coconut palms in West Africa. PANS22(3): 354-358.
Danyo G. 2011. Review of scientific research into the Cape Saint Paul wilt disease (CSPWD) of coconut in Ghana. African Journal of Agricultural Research 6: 4567-4578.
Dare D, Andoh-Mensah E, Owusu-Nipah J, Yankey N, Quaicoe R N, Nkansah-Poku J, Dery S. K. 2010. Evaluation of some basic traits of a promising coconut hybrid: Srilankan green dwarf crossed to vanuatu tall (SGDxVTT). Journal of Science and Technology 30(3): 9-14.
De La Torre C. 1906. La enfermedad de los cocoteros. Rev de la Faculdad de Let. Y Cienc (Havana), 2: 269-281.
Deeley J W, Stevens A, Fox R T V. 1979. Use of Dienes’ stain to detect plant diseases induced by mycoplasma-like organisms. Phytopathology 69: 1169-1171.
Dery S K, Cho Y P N, Sangare A, Arkhurst E D. 1997. Cape St Paul wilt disease: resistance screening and prospects for rehabilitating the coconut industry in Ghana In: Proceedings of an international workshop on lethal yellowing-like disease of coconut, Elmina, Ghana. November 1995, (Eds.) Eden-Green, S.J. and Ofori, F. Chatham, UK, Natural Resources Institute. pp.147 - 151.
Dey K K, Jeyaprakash A, Hansen J, Jones D, Smith T, Davison D, Srivastava P, Bahder, B, Li C, Sun X. 2018. First report of the 16 Sr IVD phytoplasma associated with decline of a Bismarck palm (Bismarckia nobilis). Plant Health Progress 19: 128.
Doi Y, Teranaka M, Yora K, Asuyama H. 1967. Mycoplasma or PLT group like microorganisms found in the phloem elements of plants infected with mulberry dwarf, potato witches’ broom, aster yellows or paulownia witches’ broom. Japanese Journal of Phytopathology 33: 259-266.
Dollet M, Giannotti J, Renard J L, Ghosh S K. 1977. A study of lethal yellowing of coconuts in Cameroon: Kribi disease. Observations of mycoplasma- like organisms. Oleagineux 32(7): 317-322.
Dollet M, Macome F, Vaz A, Fabre S. 2011. Phytoplasmas identical to coconut lethal yellowing phytoplasmas from Zambesia (Mozambique) found in a pentatomid bug in Cabo Delgado province. Bulletin of Insectology 64: S139-S140.
Donis J. 2002. Coconut cultivation and lethal yellowing status in Haiti. Proceedings.expert consultation on sustainable coconut production through control of lethal yellowing disease, Kingston, Jamaica. CFC/FAO/CIB. pp. 90-92.
Doyle M M R. 2001. Crisis research: managing lethal yellowing disease. Biotechnology and Development Monitor No. 44/45. pp. 12-15.
Dzido J L, Sanchez R, Dollet M, Julia JF, Narvaez M, Fabre S, Oropeza C. 2020. Haplaxiuscrudus (Hemiptera: Cixiidae) transmits the lethal yellowing phytoplasmas, 16SrIV, to Pritchardia pacifica Seem. & H. Wendl (Arecaceae) in Yucatan, Mexico. Neotropical Entomology 49: 795-805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13744-020-00799-2
Fawcett W. 1891. Report on the coconut disease at Montego Bay. Bulletin of the Botanical Department (Jamaica) 23: 2.
Ferguson M H, Singh R, Cook M, Burks T, Ong K. 2020. Geographic distribution and host range of lethal bronzing associated with phytoplasma subgroup 16SrIV-D on palms in southern Louisiana. Plant Health Progress 21(4): 350-355.
Gurr G M, Johnson A, Ash G, Wilson B, Ero M, Pilotti C, Dewhurst C, You M. 2016. Coconut lethal yellowing diseases: a phytoplasma threat to palms of global economic and social significance. Frontiers in Plant Science 7:5121.
Harrison N A, Bourne C M, Cox R L, Tsai J H, Richardson P. 1992. DNA probes for detection of mycoplasma-like organisms associated with lethal yellowing of palms in Florida. Phytopathology 82: 216-224.
Harrison N A, Davis R E, Oropeza C, Helmick E E, Narvaez M, Eden-Green S, Dollet M, Dickinson M. 2014. ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma palmicola’, associated with a lethal yellowing-type disease of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in Mozambique. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 64, 1890-1899.
Harrison N A, Elliott L M. 2016. Phytoplasmas associated with date palm in the continental USA: three 16SrIV subgroups Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture.28 (1): 17-23.
Harrison N A, Helmick E E, Elliott M L. 2008. Lethal yellowing-type diseases of palms associated with phytoplasmas newly identified in Florida, USA. Annals of Applied Biology, 153, 1, 85-94.
Harrison N A, Richardson P A, Kramer J B, Tsai 1 H. 1994. Detection of the mycoplasma-like organisms associated with lethal yellowing of palms in Florida by polymerase chain reaction. Plant Pathology, 43: 998-1008.
Harrison N A, Womack M, Carpio M L. 2002b. Detection and characterization of a lethal yellowing (16SrIV) group phytoplasma in Canary Island date palms affected by lethal decline in Texas. Plant Disease 86(6): 676-681.
Harrison N A. Oropeza C. 1997. Recent studies on detection of lethal yellowing disease phytoplasmas in the Americas. In: Eden-Green SJ, Ofori F, eds. Proceedings.International workshop on lethal yellowing-like diseases of coconut,Elmina, Ghana, 1995. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. 221-34.
Harrison N A, Narvaez M, Almeyda H, Cordova I, Carpio M L, Oropeza C. 2002a. First report of group 16SrIV phytoplasmas infecting coconut palms with leaf yellowing symptoms on the Pacific coast of Mexico. Plant Pathology 51(6): 808.
Harrison N, Cordova I, Richardson P, Dibonito, R. 1999.Detection and diagnosis of lethal yellowing. In: Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology, Vol. 35, eds Oropeza C. Verdeil J L, Ashburner G R, Cardena R, Santamaria J M. (Dordrecht: Springer) 183-196.
Harrison N A, Helmick E E, Elliott M L. 2008. Lethal yellowing-type diseases of palms associated with phytoplasmas newly identified in Florida, USA. Annals of Applied Biology 153: 85-94.
Hegde V, Nair S, Gangaraj K P, Merin Babu. 2016. PCR and LAMP based detection of phytoplasma associated with root (wilt) disease of coconut and yellow leaf disease of arecanut. Paper presented in 6th International Conference: Plant, Pathogens and People 23-27 February, 2016 New Delhi. pp. 160.
Hemmati C, Al-Subhi A M, Al-Housni M T, Al-Sadi A M. 2020. Molecular detection and characterization of a 16SrII-D phytoplasma associated with streak yellows of date palm in Oman. Australasian Plant Disease Notes 15(1): 35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13314020-00404-w.
Hernandez E R, Gordillo J M L, Oropeza C S, García C F O, Alejandro M A M, Soto S S, Estrada Y G. 2020. Detection and identification of phytoplasmas in the 16SrIV-A, -B, and -D subgroups in palms in Tabasco, Mexico. Plant Disease 104:2606-2612.
Howard F W, Oropeza, C. 1998. Organic mulch as a factor in the nymphal habitat of Myndus crudus (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Cixiidae). Florida Entomologist 81: 92-97.
Howard F W. 1983. World distribution and possible geographic origin of palm lethal yellowing disease and its vectors. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin31: 101-113.
Howard F, Atilano R, Barrant C I, Harrison N A,Theobold W F, Williams D S. 1987. Unusually high lethal yellowing disease incidence in malayan dwarf coconut palms on localized sites in Jamaica and Florida. Journal of Plantation Crops, 15: 86-100.
Jeyaprakash A, Sutton B D, Halbert S E, Schubert T S. 2011. First report of a 16SrIV-D phytoplasma associated with Texas Phoenix palm decline on pigmy date palm (Phoenix roebelenii) in Florida. Plant Disease 95(11): 1475.
Kanatiwela-de Silva C, Damayanthi M, de Silva N, Wijesekera R, Dickinson M, Weerakoon D, Udagama, P. 2019. Immunological detection of the Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease associated phytoplasma: development and validation of a polyclonal antibody based indirect ELISA. PLoS ONE 14(4): p.e0214983
Kanatiwela-de Silva C, Damayanthi M, de Silva R, Dickinson M, de Silva N, Udagama P. 2015. Molecular and scanning electron microscopic proof of phytoplasma associated with areca palm yellow leaf disease in Sri Lanka. Plant Disease. 9(11):1641. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-01-15-0072-PDN
Kelly P L, Reeder R, Kokoa P, Arocha Y, Nixon T, Fox, A. 2011. First report of a phytoplasma identified in coconut palms (Cocos nucifera L.) with lethal yellowing-like symptoms in Papua New Guinea. New Disease Reports 23:9.
Khushk A M, Memon A, Aujla K M. 2009. Marketing channels and margins of dates in Sindh, Pakistan. Journal of Agricultural Research 47(3): 293-308.
Kochubabu M, Ramachandran Nair K.1993. Distribution of spear rot disease of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) and its possible association with MLO disease of palm in Kerala, India. The Planter, Kula Lumpur 69(803): 59-66.
Konan Konan, J L, Allou K, Diallo H A, Yao D S, Koua B, Kouassi N, Benabid R, Michelutti R, Scott J, Rosete AY.2013. First report on the molecular identification of the phytoplasma associated with a lethal yellowing-type disease of coconut palms in Cote d’Ivoire. New Disease Reports28:3.
Krishnakumar V. Babu M, Thomas R J, Josephrajakumar A, Anithakumari P, Hegde V, Chowdappa P. 2015. Root (wilt) disease of coconut-Bench to Bunch strategies. ICAR-CPCRI Technical Bulletin No. 91. pp. 28.
Kumara A D N T, Perera L, Meegahakumbura M K, Aratchige N S, Fernando L C P. 2015. Identification of putative vectors of Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease in Sri Lanka. In: New Horizons in Insect Science: Towards Sustainable Pest Management, ed. A. K. Chakravarthy (New Delhi: Springer). pp. 137-146.
Kwadjo K E, Beugre N D I, Dietrich C H, Kodjo A T T, Diallo H A, Yankey N, Dery S, Wilson M, Konan J L K, Contaldo N, Paltrinieri S, Bertaccini A, Arocha-Rosete Y 2018. Identification of Nedotepacurta Dmitrievas a potential vector of the Cote d’Ivoire lethal yellowing phytoplasma in coconut palms sole or in mixed infection with a ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’-related strain. Crop Protection 110:48-56.
Lara I C, Narvaez L M, Hau C P, Oropeza C, Saenz L. 2017. Detection and identification of lethal yellowing phytoplasma 16SrIV-A and D associated with Adonidia merrillii palms in Mexico. Australasian Plant Pathology 46(5): 389-396.
Leach R. 1946. The unknown disease of coconut palm in Jamaica. Tropical Agriculture 43: 59-68.
Lebrun P, Baudouin L, Myrie W, Berger A, Dollet M. 2008. Recent lethal yellowing outbreak: why is the Malayan Yellow Dwarf coconut no longer resistant in Jamaica? Tree Genetics and Genomes (1): 125-131.
Lee I M, Rindal G D E, Davis R E and Bartoszyk M. 1998. Revised classification scheme of phytoplasmas based on RFLP analyses of 16S rRNA and ribosomal protein gene sequences. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 48: 1153-1169.
Llauger R, Becker D, Cueto J , Peralta E, Gonzalez V, Rodriguez M., Rohde W. 2002. Detection and molecular characterization of phytoplasma associated with lethal yellowing disease of coconut palms in Cuba. Journal of Phytopathology 150: 390-395.
Lu H, Wilson B A L, Ash G J, Woruba S B, Fletcher M J, You M, Yang G, Gurr G. M. 2016. Determining putative vectors of the bogia coconut syndrome phytoplasma using loop-mediated isothermal amplification of single-insect feeding media. Scientific Reports 6 (1): 1-10.
Manimekalai R, Nair S, Soumya V P, Thomas G V.2013. Phylogenetic analysis identifies a ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma oryzae’-related strain associated with yellow leaf disease of areca palm (Areca catechu L.) in India. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 63: 1376-1382.
Manimekalai R, Nair S, Soumya V P.2014a. Evidence of 16SrXI group phytoplasma DNA in embryos of root wilt diseased coconut palms. Australasian Plant Pathology 43: 93- 96.
Manimekalai R, Nair S, Soumya V, Roshna O, Thomas G. 2011. Real-time PCR technique- based detection of coconut root (wilt) phytoplasma. Current Science 101(9): 1209-1213.
Manimekalai R, Soumya V P, Kumar R S, Selvarajan R, Reddy K, Thomas G V, Sasikala M, Rajeev G, Baranwal V K. 2010. Molecular detection of 16SrXI group phytoplasma associated with root (wilt) disease of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in India. Plant Disease 94: 636.
Manimekalai R, Soumya V P, Nair S, Thomas G V, Baranwal V. 2014b. Molecular characterization identifies 16SrXI-B group phytoplasma (‘Candidatus Phytoplasma oryzae’-related strain) associated with root (wilt) disease of coconut in India. Scientia Horticulturae 165: 288-294.
Mariau D, Dery S K, Sangare A N,Cho Y P, Philippe R. 1996. Coconut lethal yellowing disease and planting material tolerance. Plantations Recherche Development3: 105-12.
Martinez A P, Roberts D A. 1967. Lethal yellowing of coconut in Florida. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 80: 432-436.
Martinez R T, Baudouin L, Berger A, Dollet M. 2010. Characterization of the genetic diversity of the Tall coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) in the Dominican Republic using microsatellite (SSR) markers. Tree Genetics and Genomes 6: 73-8.
Martinez R T, Narvaez M, Fabre S, Harrison N, Oropeza C, Dollet M. 2008. Coconut lethal yellowing on the southern coast of the Dominican Republic is associated with a new 16SrIV group phytoplasma. Plant Pathology 57: 366-366.
Mathen K, Rajan P, Radhakrishnan Nair C P, Sasikala M, Gunasekaran M, Govindankutty M P, Solomon J J. 1990. Transmission of root (wilt) disease to coconut seedlings through Stephanitis typica (Distant) (Heteroptera: Tingidae). Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad) 67(1): 69-73.
McCoy R E, Carroll V J, Poucher C P, Gwin G H. 1976. Field control of coconut lethal yellowing with oxytetracyclinehydrochloride. Phytopathology 66: 1148- 1150.
McCoy R E, Miller M E, Thomas D L, Amador J. 1980. Lethal decline of Phoenix palms in Texas associated with mycoplasma-like organisms. Plant Disease 64: 1038-1040
Miyazaki A, Shigaki T, Koinuma H, Iwabuchi N, Rauka GB, Kembu A, Saul J, Watanabe K, Nijo T, Maejima K, Yamaji Y, Namba S 2018.‘Candidatus Phytoplasma noviguineense’, a novel taxon associated with Bogia coconut syndrome and banana wilt disease on the island of New Guinea. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 68: 170-175.
Mora A G. 2002. Dispersal potential of lethal yellowing of the coconut palm: a quarantine disease in Mexico. In: Proceedings of expert consultation on sustainable coconut production through control of lethal yellowing disease, Kingston, Jamaica. 128-133 pp.
Mpunami A, Tymon A, Jones P, Dickinson M J. 1999. Genetic diversity in the coconut lethal yellowing disease phytoplasmas of East Africa Plant Pathology 48: 109-114.
Muralidharan A, Jayasanker N P, Antony K J, Rethinam P. 1991. Management of coconut root (wilt) disease. Coconut root (wilt) disease. CPCRI Monograph series 3: 73-80.
Myrie W.2002. Current outbreaks of lethal yellowing in Jamaica and the use of molecular diagnostic techniques in phytoplasma detection, proc. expert consultation on sustainable coconut production through control of lethal yellowing disease, Kingston, Jamaica. pp 107-115.
Myrie W, Douglas C J, Harrison N A, McLaughlin W A, James M. 2012. First report of lethal yellowing disease associated with subgroup 16SrIV,a phytoplasma on St. Kitts in the Lesser Antilles. New Disease Reports 26:25.
Myrie W, Oropeza C, Saenz L, Harrison N A, Mercedes Roca M, Cordova I. 2011. Reliable improved molecular detection of coconut lethal yellowing phytoplasma and reduction of associated disease through field management strategies, Bulletin of Insectology 64: S203-S204.
Myrie W, Paulraj L, Dollet M, Wray D, Been B, McLaughlin W. 2006. First report of lethal yellowing disease of coconut palms caused by phytoplasma on Nevis Island. Plant Disease, 90: 834-834.
Myrie W A, Harrison N A, Douglas L, Helmick E, Gore-Francis J, Oropeza C, McLaughlin WA, 2014. First report of lethal yellowing disease associated with subgroup 16SrIV-A phytoplasmas in Antigua, West Indies. New Disease Reports 29: 12.
Naderali N, Vadamalai G, Nejat N, Ling K L. 2015. First report of phytoplasma (16sri) associated with yellow decline disease of royal palms [Roystonea regia (Kunth) O. F. Cook] in Malaysia. Journal of Phytopathology 163 (2): 133-137.
Naderali N, Nejat N, Tan Y H, Vadamalai G. 2013. First report of two distinct phytoplasma species, ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma cynodontis’ and ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris,’ simultaneously associated with yellow decline of Wodyetia bifurcata (Foxtail Palm) in Malaysia. Plant Disease 97(11):1504.
Naderali N, Vadamalai G, Tan Y H, Nejat N. 2014. Detection and identification of aster yellows phytoplasma associated with lipstick yellow frond disease in Malaysia. Journal of Phytopathology 162(4): 264-268.
Nainanayake A D, Kumarathungai M D P, de Silva, P H P R. 2016. A survey of land for Weligama Coconut Leaf Wilt Disease affected palms outside the declared boundary in the Southern Province COCOS 22: 57-64.
Nainanayake A D, Wijesekara H T R, Gunathilake I. 2013. Disease spreading pattern - GIS mapping In: Weligama Coconut Leaf Wilt Disease Six years after (Eds. H P M Gunasena, H A I. Gunathilake, L C P Fernando, I M D T Everard, P A H N Appuhamy). pp. 48-52. Coconut Research Institute, Sri Lanka.
Nair S, Roshna O M, Soumya V P, Hegde V, Kumar M S, Manimekalai R, Thomas G V. 2014. Real-time PCR technique for detection of arecanut yellow leaf disease phytoplasma. Australasian Plant Pathology 43: 527-529.
Nair S, Manimekalai R, Ganga Raj P and Hegde V. 2016. Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for detection of coconut root wilt disease and arecanut yellow leaf disease phytoplasma. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 32: 108.
Nambiar K K. 1949. Survey of arecanut crop in Indian union. Indian central arecanut committee, Calicut. pp.26.
Narvaez M, Lara I C, Martınez C R, Hau C P, Narvaez L M, Collı A, Caamal G, Harrison N, Saenz L, Oropeza C. 2016. Occurrence of 16SrIV Subgroup A phytoplasmas in Roystonea regia and Acrocomia mexicana palms with lethal yellowing-like syndromes in Yucatan, Mexico. Journal of Phytopathology 164 (11/12):1111-1115.
Narvaez M, Ortiz E, Silverio C, Santamaria JM, Espadas F, Oropeza C. 2017. Changes observed in Pritchardiapacifica palms affected by a lethal yellowing-type disease in Mexico. African Journal of Biotechnology 16(51): 2331-2340.
Nayar R, Seliskar C E.1978. Mycoplasma like organisms associated with yellow leaf disease of Areca catechu L. European Journal of Forest Pathology 8: 125-128.
Nejat N, Sijam K, Abdullah S N A, Vadamalai G, Dickinson M 2009a. Molecular characterization of a phytoplasma associated with Coconut Yellow Decline (CYD) in Malaysia. American Journal of Applied Sciences 6: 1331.
Nejat N, Sijam K, Abdullah S N A, Vadamalai G, Sidek Z, Dickinson M, Edizioni E T S. 2010. Development of a TaqMan real-time PCR for sensitive detection of the novel phytoplasma associated with coconut yellow decline in Malaysia. Journal of Plant Pathology, 92(3): 769-773.
Nejat N, Sijam K, Abdullah S, Vadamalai G, Dickinson M. 2009b. Phytoplasmas associated with disease of coconut in Malaysia: Phylogenetic groups and host plant species. Plant Pathology 58: 1152-1160.
Nejat N, Vadamalai G, Davis R E, Harrison N A, Sijam K, Dickinson M, Abdullah S N A, Zhao Y. 2013. ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma malaysianum’, a novel taxon associated with virescence and phyllody of Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus). International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology,63: 540-548.
Nienhaus F, Steiner K G. 1976. Mycoplasma like organisms associated with Kaincope disease of coconut palms in Togo. Plant Disease Reporter 60: 1000-1002.
Nipah J O, Jones P, Dickinson M J. 2007. Detection of lethal yellowing phytoplasma in embryos from coconut palms infected with Cape St. Paul wilt disease in Ghana. Plant Pathology 56: 777-784.
Nkansah J P, Philippe R, Quaicoe R N, Dery S K, Ransford A. 2009. Cape Saint Paul Wilt Disease of coconut in Ghana: surveillance and management of disease spread. Oleagineux Corps Gras Lipides 16: 111-115.
Odewale J O, Nair RV, Enaberue L. 2006. Field resistance to lethal yellowing disease in some coconut varieties in Nigeria Tropical Agriculture 83 (4): 135.
Odewale J O, Odionwaya G, Osagie J I, Ahanon J M. 2010. Rate of lethal yellowing disease (LYD) spread in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) plantation of tall interplanted with Dwarf varieties. Proceedings of the 19thConference of Botanical Society of Nigeria, Umaru Musa Yaraddua University, Katsina, Nigeria. pp. 47.
Omar A F, Alsohim A, Rehan M R, Al-Jamhan, K A, Perez-Lopez E. 2018. 16SrII phytoplasma associated with date palm and Mexican fan palm in Saudi Arabia. Australasian Plant Disease Notes 13: 39.
Oropeza C, Cordova I, Puch‐Hau C, Castillo R, Chan J L, Saenz L. 2017. Detection of lethal yellowing phytoplasma in coconut plantlets obtained through in vitro germination of zygotic embryos from the seeds of infected palms. Annals of Applied Biology 171(1): 28-36.
Padilla A K, Paez L AR, CastrejonA I N, Sanchez J C O, Bustamante R R, Soriano J P M, Bertaccini A, Maini S. 2011.Epidemic of lethal yellowing disease affecting Phoenix dactylifera and Sabal mexicana in central Mexico. Department of Agroenvironmental Sciences and Technologies, Bologna, Italy, Bulletin of Insectology 64: S221-S222.
Palma C P J, Gaxiola S J A, Narvaez M, Matos G N, Madinaveitia C Y, Sandoval P A, Mascorro G A, Oropeza C. 2020. First report of mortality in Phoenix canariensis associated with subgroup 16SrIV‐D phytoplasmas in Coahuila, Mexico. African Journal of Biotechnology 19(12):846-857.
Perera L, Meegahakumbura M K, Wijesekara H R T, Fernando W B S, Dickinson M. 2012. A phytoplasma is associated with Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease in Sri Lanka. Journal of Plant Pathology 94: 205-209.
Perera S A C N, Herath H M N B, Wijesekera H T R, Subhathma W G R, Weerakkody W A T. L. 2015. Evaluation of coconut germplasm in Weligama and Matara area of the Southern Province of Sri Lanka for resistance to Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease. COCOS 21: 15-20.
Philippe R, Reignard S, Descamps S, Poku J N, Quaicoe R, Pilet F, FabreS, Dollet M. 2009. Study on the transmission of coconut lethal yellowing in Ghana. Oleagineux Corps Gras Lipides 16: 102-106.
Pilotti C A, Dewhurst C F, Liefting L W, Kuniata L, Kakul T. 2014. Putative vectors of a phytoplasma associated with coconut (Cocos nucifera) in Madang Province Papua New Guinea. International Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 4: 365-372.
Plavsic B B, Hunt P, Maramorosch K. 1972. Mycoplasma like bodies associated with lethal yellowing disease of coconut palms. Phytopathology 62: 298-299.
Poghosyan A, Gonzalez H J, Lebsky V, Oropeza C, Narvaez M, Leon de la Luz J L. 2019. First report of 16SrIV palm lethal yellowing group phytoplasma (‘Candidatus Phytoplasma palmae’) in palmilla de taco (Braheabrandegeei) and palmacolorada (Washingtonia robusta) in the state of Baja California Sur, Mexico. Plant Disease 103(8): 2122.
Quaicoe R N, Dery S K, Philippe R, Baudouin L, Nipah J O, Poku N J, Arthur R, Dare D, Yankey E N, Pilet F, Dollet M. 2009. Resistance screening trials on coconut varieties to Cape Saint Paul Wilt Disease in Ghana. Oleagineux 16: 132-136.
Quillec G, Morin J P, Renard J L, Marian D. 1978. Disease of young coconut palms. Oleagineux 33: 500- 501.
Rajamannar M, Prasadji J K, Rethinam, P. 1994. Tatipaka disease of coconut. Advances in horticulture, 10 - Plantation and spice crops, Part 2. (Eds.) K L. Chadha and Rethinam, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi, India.
Rajan P. 2011. Transmission of coconut root (wilt) disease through plant hopper, Proutista moesta Westwood (Homoptera: Derbidae). Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems 17: 1-5.
Rajeev G, Prakash V R, Mayilvaganan M M, Sasikala J, Solomon J, Nair G M. 2011. Microscopic and polyclonal antibodybased detection of yellow leaf disease of arecanut (Areca catechu L.). Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 44(11): 1093-1104.
Ramjegathesh R, Karthikeyan G, Balachandar D, Ramaraju K, Rajendran L, Raguchander T, Samiyappan R. 2019. Nested and TaqMan® probe based quantitative PCR for the diagnosis of Ca. Phytoplasma in coconut palms. Molecular Biology Reports 46: 479-488.
Rao P G, Reddy G S, Subbiah J. 1956. A new disease of coconut in Andhra State. Indian Coconut Journal 19: 215-222.
Rhode W, Kullaya A, Mpunami A, Becker D. 1993. Rapid and sensitive diagnosis of mycoplasma-like organisms associated with lethal disease of coconut palm by a specifically primed Polymerase chain reaction for the amplification of 16 SrDNA. Oleagineux 48: 319-322.
Roca M M, Castillo M G, Harrison N A, Oropeza C. 2006. First report of a 16SrIV group phytoplasma associated with declining coyol palms in Honduras. Plant Disease 90:526.
Romney D H, Harries H.C. 1978. Distribution and impact of lethal yellowing in the Carribean. In Proceedings of the 3rd meeting of the international council of lethal yellowing, University of Florida Agricultural Research Centre, Fort Lauderdale 78: 6-7.
Romney D H. 1983. Brief review of coconut lethal yellowing.Indian Coconut Journal13: 1-8.
Russel W C, Newman C, Williamson D H. 1975. A simple cytochemical technique for demonstration of DNA in cells infected with mycoplasmas and viruses. Nature 25: 461 - 462.
Sahasranaman K N, Pillai N G, Jayasankar N P, Potti V P, Varkey T, Amma P G K, Radha K. 1983. Mixed farming in coconut gardens: economics and its effect on root(wilt) disease. In: Coconut Research and Development (Nayar, N M).Wiley Eastern, New Delhi. pp. 160-165.
Sasikala M. Rajeev G, Prakash V R, Amith S. 2010. Modified protocol of ELISA for rapid detection of coconut root (wilt) disease. Journal of Plantation Crops 38(1): 16-19.
Schuiling M, Mpunami A. 1990. The Lethal Disease of coconut palm in Tanzania: Review of research up to date and preliminary results of resistance trials. In: Analisis Sobre la Problematic adel Amarillamiento L etal del Cocotero, CICY, Merida. pp. 171-184.
Serju C. 2012. 30 years dedicated to coconut cultivation. In: Jamaica Gleaner (Kingston: The Gleaner Company). Available online at: http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120223/business/business3.html.
Singh R, Ferguson M H. 2017. First report of a Candidatus Phytoplasma palmae-related subgroup 16SrIV-D phytoplasma on Trachycarpus fortunei. Australasian Plant Disease Notes 12:59.
Siriwardhana P H A P, Gunawardena B W A, Steve Millington S J. 2012. Detection of phytoplasma associated with Weligama Coconut Leaf Wilt Disease in Sri Lanka by loop mediated isothermal amplification assay performing alkaline polyethylene glycol based DNA extraction. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology Research 2 (5):712-716.
Sitepu D. Mangindaan H, Mawikere J. 1988. Outbreak of a coconut wilt disease in Central Kalimantan. In: UNDP/FAO Integrated Coconut Pest Control Project, Annual Report 1988. BalaiPenelitianKelapa, Manado. North Sulawesi.
Solomon J J, Govindankutty M P, Mathen K. 1987. Detection of mycoplasma like organism in root(wilt) disease affected coconut and its putative vector. In: Regional Workshop on Plant Mycoplasma, New Delhi. pp. 24-28.
Solomon J J, Govindankutty M P, Nienhaus F. 1983. Association of mycoplasma-like organisms with the coconut root (wilt) disease in India. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection. pp. 295-297.
Tanne E, Boudon P E, Clair D, Davidovich M, Melamed S, Klein M. 2001. Detection of phytoplasma by polymerase chain reaction of insect feeding medium and its use in determining vectoring ability. Phytopathology 91: 741-746.
Thomas D L. 1974. Possible link between declining palm species and lethal yellowing of coconut palms. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society 87: 502-504.
Thomas R J, Shareefa M, Rajesh M K, Nair R V, Jacob P M, Anitha K, Thomas, G V. 2012. Breeding for resistance /tolerance to coconut root (wilt) disease. Technical Bulletin No. 72. ICAR-CPCRI, Kasaragod. pp. 32
Tymon A M, Jones P, Harrison N A. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships of coconut phytoplasmas and the development of specific oligonucleotide PCR primers. Annals of Applied Biology 132:437-452.
Vazquez-Euan R, Harrison N A, Narvaez M, Oropeza C. 2011. Occurrence of a 16SrIV group phytoplasma not previously associated with palm species in Yucatan, Mexico. Plant Disease 95(3): 256-262.
Weerakkody W A T L. 2010. Impact of Weligama Coconut Leaf Wilt Disease (WCLWD) on morphological, physiological and yield aspects of affected coconut palms. A Project Report presented to the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. http://dlib.pdn.ac.lk/bitstream/123456789/3563/1/Weerakkody%202010.pdf
Weintraub P G, Beanland L. 2006. Insect vectors of phytoplasmas. Annual Review of Entomology 51: 91-111.
Wijesekara H T R, Perera A A F L K, Meegehekumbura M G M K, Dassanayaka E M, Ranasinghe C. 2013. Serological and molecular techniques. Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease six years after. Eds. HPM Gunasena, HAJ. Gunathilaka LCP, Fernando J M D T, Everard P A H N Appuhamy. Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka. pp. 56-70.
Wijesekara H T R, Perera L, Wickramananda I W, Herath I, Meegahakumbura M K, Fernando W B S, De Silva P H P R.2008. Preliminary investigations on Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease: a new disease in Southern Sri Lanka. Proceedings. Second symposium on plantation crop research-Export competitiveness through quality improvements. pp. 336-341.
Wijesekara H T R, Perera S A C N, Bandupriya D, Meegahakumbura M K, Perera L. 2020. Detection of Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease phytoplasma by real-time polymerase chain reaction. CORD 36:11-15.
Yankey E N, Bila J, Rosete Y A, Oropeza C, Pilet F. 2018. Phytoplasma diseases of palms. Phytoplasmas: Plant Pathogenic Bacteria - I. pp. 267-285.
Yankey E N, Swarbrick P J, Nipah J O, Quaicoe R N, Dickinson M J, Edizioni E T S. 2014. Detection of the Cape St. Paul wilt phytoplasma in coconut palms in Ghana through the combination of visual symptoms assessment and molecular diagnosis using a secA gene based assay. Journal of Plant Pathology 96(2): 81-285.
Zamharir M G, Eslahi M R. 2019. Molecular study of two distinct phytoplasma species associated with streak yellows of date palm in Iran. Journal of Phytopathology 167:19-25.
Zizumbo Villarreal D, Colunga Garcia Marin P, Fernandez Barrera M, Torres Hernandez N, Oropeza C. 2008 Mortality of Mexican coconut germplasm due to lethal yellowing. PGR Newsletter No.156: 23-33.
